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Cardoso-Grilo, T., Kalakou, S. & Vicente, J. J. (2026). Dual goals, one fleet: An optimization model for balancing cost-emission trade-offs when planning mixed bus fleets. International Journal of Systems Science-Operations & Logistics. 13 (1)

T. S. Grilo et al.,  "Dual goals, one fleet: An optimization model for balancing cost-emission trade-offs when planning mixed bus fleets", in Int. Journal of Systems Science-Operations & Logistics, vol. 13, no. 1, 2026

@article{grilo2026_1777262511943,
	author = "Cardoso-Grilo, T. and Kalakou, S. and Vicente, J. J.",
	title = "Dual goals, one fleet: An optimization model for balancing cost-emission trade-offs when planning mixed bus fleets",
	journal = "International Journal of Systems Science-Operations & Logistics",
	year = "2026",
	volume = "13",
	number = "1",
	doi = "10.1080/23302674.2026.2658693",
	url = "https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/tsyb20"
}

TY  - JOUR
TI  - Dual goals, one fleet: An optimization model for balancing cost-emission trade-offs when planning mixed bus fleets
T2  - International Journal of Systems Science-Operations & Logistics
VL  - 13
IS  - 1
AU  - Cardoso-Grilo, T.
AU  - Kalakou, S.
AU  - Vicente, J. J.
PY  - 2026
SN  - 2330-2674
DO  - 10.1080/23302674.2026.2658693
UR  - https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/tsyb20
AB  - Public transport operators relying on diesel fleets face increasing pressure to adopt environmentally sustainable solutions. Integrating electric vehicles into existing systems represents a promising but complex transition, requiring system-level planning under multiple, policy-oriented scenarios. This study adopts a systems science perspective to address this challenge, recognising the interdependencies among fleet composition, battery technologies, charging infrastructure and policy constraints. To support integrated decision-making, it introduces a mixed-integer linear optimisation model—the MultOptMixedFleet—that determines the optimal mix of electric and non-electric buses, selects suitable battery capacities and identifies strategic charging locations and types. The model formulates fleet electrification as a multi-objective optimisation problem, capturing trade-offs between cost and environmental performance. Applied to a Portuguese public transport provider, the model demonstrates its practical value as a decision-support tool for managers and policymakers seeking cost-effective and low-emission transition strategies. Results show that progressive electrification delivers major emission reductions: fully replacing diesel buses lowers emission-related costs by approximately 67% compared with fully non-electric fleets. Although electrification increases total system costs, longer battery lifecycles mitigate this effect by reducing annual operating and investment costs by 6% and 33%, respectively. Overall, the study highlights the importance of systems-oriented modelling for sustainable operations and logistics.
ER  -