The distinction between major and minor modes has been central to Western tonal music since the 17th century, often serving as a mechanism for conveying emotional valence. The major mode is typically associated with positive emotions such as happiness and optimism, while the minor mode is linked to negative emotions such as melancholy and sadness. Whether these associations are learned or innate remains debated. They may arise primarily from cultural exposure or reflect natural responses to basic acoustic features—such as harmonicity and pitch height—that are relevant in vocal communication [1,2]. Nevertheless, the culture-specific nature of major and minor modes suggests a role for learning [3]. In contrast, tempo appears to be a more universal emotional cue [4]. Even among listeners exposed extensively to Western music, tempo is a stronger predictor of happy-sad judgments than mode [5,6], and variations in tempo have a greater impact on arousal than mode does on valence [7].

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