In recent years, representative democracies of southern Europe and beyond have accumulated symptoms of malaise, like high levels of dissatisfaction and distrust with their main political actors and institutions (e.g., political parties, parliaments, and governments) (Fernandes et al. 2019). As a possible solution to this crisis, some argue that citizens’ participation between elections should be encouraged, namely through the use of instruments of direct democracy. Proponents of this approach believe direct democracy to be a crucial complementary instrument that strengthens and improves the quality of electoral democracy (Uleri 2012).

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